Kekecewaan

Banyak orang berkata bahwa kekecewaan hanya akan menjadi akar pahit dalam hati jika kita simpan. jika kita tilik lebih dalam, hal tersebut memang benar adanya, namun apakah kita tidak bisa memandang kekecewaan tersebut dari sisi positifnya??

Mungkin, Kehidupan yang kita jalani sekarang tidak sesuai dengan kehidupan yang kita harapkan. Tapi coba dee kita bayangkan kalau kondisi kehidupan kita jauuh lebih buruk dari apa yang kita hidupi sekarang. Apakah kita masi pantas kecewa?? Jawabannya : Tidak!! Karena apa yang kita hidupi sekarang jauh lebih baik daripada apa yang seharusnya kita hidupi. Ingatlah, bahwa kita hanyalah makhluk ciptaan ALLAH yang tidak memiliki hak untuk meminta ini-itu seenak kita.

Karrena itu,, bagi orang-orang yang saat ini mengalami kekecewaan,ingatlah akan tugas dan panggilanmu di dunia ini, pandang segala sesuatunya dengan posistif dan bersyukurlah. Maka kelimpahan berkat akan datang padamu dan membuatmu lupa akan kekecewaan yang kamu alami sebelumnya.
okeeh??

* dibuat saat penulis pun merasa kecewa, namun berusaha tegar dan mencoba berbagi cerita.

Best Regards,

Tato

Leadership 6

SITUATIONAL, EXCHANGES, & PATH-GOAL LEADERSHIP THEORIES

Leadership cannot be taught. It can only be modeled and developed from within ANY INDIVIDUAL.
Leadership development is an ongoing process of enrolling and coaching people to courageously examine their current reality and take purposeful action toward realizing a compelling future.

THE LEARNING PROCESS
First lead yourself, then lead others
• Establish strategic direction for your career and life then set transformational goals.
• Identify and commit to those leadership competencies you will model and acquire.
• Develop and execute specific action plans, learning from failure and keeping a positive future focus.
• Cascade your success by serving as a model to others

THE TRANSFORMATION TO LEADERSHIP
“…by transformation we mean that you must gain control over the patterns that govern your mind: your worldview, your beliefs about what you deserve and about what's possible. That's the zone of fundamental change, strength, and energy -- and the true meaning of courage.”
-- Peter Kostenbaum

LEADERSHIP ORIENTATION

FIVE FUNDAMENTAL OF LEADERSHIP MINDSET
1. Personal Accountability
• Leadership begins with personal accountability. This module focuses on creating sense of ownership for results and expanding our sphere of influence. Personal accountability is the measure of our personal effectiveness, meaning that each of us ultimately determines the quality of our own experience.
2. Vision
• Vision is the power of dreams in action and one of the most powerful human motivators. Vision allows leaders to create a compelling future for themselves and others, inspiring transformational results. A future orientation distinguishes great leaders, and this module provides the tools to create the pathway and a plan to achieve results that truly matter.
3. Ethics
• Ethics is about being of service and doing things that benefit the organization and community. It means acting in alignment with our moral compass, and upholding consistent values that guide us in our choices.
4. Courage in Adversity
• Leaders face reality by acting with courage in the face of adversity. Based on John Stoltz’s Adversity (kelemahan) Quotient (AQ) theory, each of us can train our capacity to get things done in the face of continuous change, and respond positively to crisis, rejection and failure
5. Situational Leadership
• Situational leadership is about awareness of self and our environment, allowing us to draw upon a range of communication approaches and making resourceful choices based on clearly defined outcomes.

THE SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
• Leaders Behaviours:
• Task Behaviours - extent to which leader spells out the responsibilities of the individual or group
• Relationship Behaviours - how much leader engages in two-way com - listening, encouraging, facilitating, clarifying, giving socio-emotional support
• Maturity of the Follower:
• Job maturity - task-relevant knowledge.
• Psychological maturity - self confidence; commitment; motivation relative to the task
• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory explains
• that when followers are unwilling and unable, the leader should be
• Highly focused on providing task-based behaviors and not
• relationship-based behaviors.
• A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness; the more “ready” the followers (the more willing and able) the less the need for leader support and supervision.

Hersey & Blanchard) theory on leadership styles and followers readiness


LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY
• Leaders select certain followers to be “in” (favorites)
• Based on competence and/or compatibility & similarity to leader
• “Exchanges” with these “In” followers will be higher quality than with those who are “Out”
• RESULT: “In” subordinates will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction


PATH-GOAL THEORY
• Leader must help followers attaining goals and reduce roadblocks to success
• Leaders must change behaviors to fit the situation (environmental contingencies & subordinate contingencies)

Leadership 5

LEADERSHIP’S POWER AND INFLUENCE

Highlight

Everyone is born with leadership capabilities and the naturals carry the power to influence the latency in others.
Effective leaders know how to influence people.
In most organizations, its not about authority, it's about influence.

THE NINE SPHERES OF LEADER INFLUENCE

Definition
In politics, a sphere (bubble) of influence is typically defined as the cultural, economic, military or political influence a state exerts over another state.
Similarly, powerful leaders have a sphere of influence used on the people around them.

THE SPHERE OF AUTHORITY
Authority is defined as a legitimate right to exercise influence based on one's position within an organization. It works best in large bureaucratic organizations and is a major mechanism of political leadership.
It is usually a vertical relationship, a top-down mechanism associated with obedience, agreement and fulfillment. Typically, there is also a status difference.
For example, people follow a doctor's instruction because that person has expertise but we do what a police officer says because the officer represents authority.

INFLUENCE THROUGH COACHING
Coaches (and by extension, mentoring and teaching) provide people new knowledge and new skills. Unfortunately, consultants are not coaches, neither are most executives.
Traditionally, managers and supervisors have never assumed the mantel of leadership required to function as a coach—telling someone what to do is not the same as showing someone how to do it. Neither do the vast majority of CEO's.
What brings the smile is the leader who mentored, taught and coached them to be better human beings.

THE SPHERE OF PERSUASION
Persuasion becomes a defensive wall/ safeguard for the leadership when authority does not work.
Technically, persuasion ends with someone saying, "I agree." But agreement doesn't mean people will actually take action.
Unfortunately, persuasion requires a fair amount of sales ability and a fairly sophisticated understanding on attitude change and cognition (ability to acquire knowledge).
Story of Noah

THE MOTIVATIONAL SPHERE OF POSSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
The two types of reinforcement and two types of punishment fit within a theory of psychology known as operant (voluntary action) conditioning.
Some refer to it more of a learning theory, while others think operant conditioning is a theory of motivation. It's influence lies in the fact that consequences work in both people and animals.
Practically speaking, negative reinforcement presents ethical issues so shrewd leaders focus on influence through the use of positive reinforcement to increase the likelihood of DESIRED BEHAVIOR.

THE MOTIVATIONAL SPHERE OF PUNISHMENT
Positive and negative punishment has a very narrow definition in operant conditioning. In this case, the definition is going to be expanded to include the threatened use of a punishment.
One could make an argument that the threatened use of punishment (escape-avoidance) can reduce undesired behavior just as much as much psychological pain as its real use.
Something best used when all other forms of leadership influence don't work, it's proper use is subject to legal statutes and ethical constraints to decrease UNDESIRED BEHAVIOR.

RELATIONSHIP INFLUENCE
It's power lies in a both knowing how to develop, maintain and repair relationships.
In many cultures, such as in Latin American and Asia, business leaders place a great deal of emphasis on relationship.
Typically, business does not begin until a sound relationship is established. And doing business gets difficult when that relationship gets strained.
Assuming leaders devoted the time and effort to develop trust, rapport, credibility, and empathy; they have the foundation elements to influence through reciprocity.

INFLUENCE THROUGH EXPERTISE
Experts are people whom we think have valuable information.
Often they are people who know how to make the right decision or solve that intractable (difficult) problem.
It helps to have depth of knowledge to be perceived as an expert, and this is an important part of the success doctors, lawyers and consultants experience.
The source of expertise as a form of influence lies partly in the psychological theory known as attribution theory. But too often, we accept false beliefs and false arguments as truth.

INFLUENCE THROUGH VISION
Few leaders harness the influence of vision to motivate people and themselves to accomplish great events.
Those that have it seem to harness an inner strength that keeps pushing them forward on a path no matter how difficult.
The visionary leader also understands how to influence people through the use of expectations.
Setting positive and negative expectations exert tremendous influence, but few leaders understand how to use them properly.
Charismatic leadership is one of the most powerful methods of leader influence, but also one of the most elusive. It's difficult to develop, but well worth the effort.
It's been associated with religious prophets, great preachers, famous teachers and those who get tagged with the title of transformational leaders.
One basis for it's influence lies in an understanding of the nature of the psychological mechanism of identification. We tend to identify with individuals and their causes resonate with ours.

CONCLUSION
A leaders sphere of influence is like singing—if one only belts out only note there's no song. But If you have nine notes, the song sounds like real music.
Each of the nine spheres of influence can be turned into a skill.
Just because you don't have it today, doesn't mean you can't develop it in the future.

Leadership 4

PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP, DELEGATION, AND EMPOWERMENT


VARIETIES OF PARTICIPATION
Membuat keputusan merupakan fungsi terpenting yang diperankan oleh seorang leader.
Participative leadership melibatkan upaya seorang leader untuk mendorong dan memfasilitasi partisipasi orang lain dalam membuat keputusan penting, yaitu melalui empat prosedur keputusan sbb:

CONSEQUENCES OF PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP
• Decision quality
Sulit untuk mendapatkan keputusan yang berkualitas jika di antara anggota partisipan memiliki perbedaan sudut pandang pada akar permasalahan dan skala prioritas, serta krisis kepercayaan terhadap sang leader.
• Decision Acceptance
Pembuatan suatu keputusan secara bersama akan menumbuhkan rasa kepemilikan terhadap keputusan tersebut sehingga menjadikannya semakin legitimate.
• Satisfaction with the Decision Process
Kebanggaan dan rasa puas partisipan atas keterlibatan mereka dalam pembuatan keputusan akan berubah menjadi kekecewaan dan penolakan keras jika mereka merasa dimanipulasi oleh sang leader.
• Development of Participant Skills
Pengalaman partisipan dalam membantu membuat keputusan yang kompleks akan memberikan pelajaran berharga dan pengembangan keterampilan para partisipan.
CAUSAL MODEL OF PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP

GUIDE LINE FOR PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP
How to diagnose decision situation
• Evaluasi bagaimana pentingnya sebuah keputusan
• Identifikasi orang orang yang memliki pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang relevan
• Evaluasi koorperasi oleh partisipan
• Evaluasi penerimaan jika tanpa adanya partisipasi
• Evauasi layak atau tidaknya untuk menunda sebuah rapat.
How to encourage participant
• Mendorong orang untuk mampu mengekspresikan pertimbangan mereka
• Jelaskan sebuah usulan yang bersifat sementara
• Catat seluruh usulan usulan dan masukan masukan
• Cari suatu upaya yang dapat membangun ide ide dan masukan masukan
• Taktis dalam meng-ekspresikan keperdulian terhadap suatu masukan.
• Aktif mendengarkan tanpa terkesan membela diri
• Mencoba untuk memanfaatkan usulan dan bernegosiasi
• Tunjukan sikap apresiatif terhadap usulan-usulan


VARIETIES OF DELEGATION
Istilah delegation/pendelegasian biasa digunakan orang untuk menelasakan beberapa bentuk atau derajat dari “power sharing” dengan bawahan.
• Memberikan tugas dan tanggung jawab baru kepada bawahan. Misal melakukan inspeksi proses produksi.
• Membolehkan bawahan melakukan penandatangan pemesanan barang dan bernegosiasi dengan supplier.
• A sales representative dibolehkan untuk menegoisasikan sebuah harga penjualan, kuantitas dan tanggal pengiriman selama masih dalam limit batasan tertentu dan atas sepengetahuan sales manager.
• Memberikan tugas pembuatan laporan secara mandiri, dlsb.


POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES OF DELEGATION
• Mengembangkan keterampilan dan rasa percaya diri bawahan
• Membuat bawahan sanggup menghadapi permasalah secara cepat dan mandiri
• Memperbaiki pengambilan keputusan dengan mendekatkan bawahan langsung pada “action”
• Meningkatkan komitmen bawahan untuk mengerjakan tugas tugasnya
• Membuat pekerjaan semakin menarik bagi bawahan
• Mengurangi beban pekerjaan untuk mengelola waktu secara lebih baik.

Performance Appraisal

THE ROLE OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Competent appraisal of individual performance in an organization or company serves to improve the overall effectiveness of the entity. According to D. McGregor, author of The Human Side of Enterprise, the three main functional areas of performance appraisal systems are: administrative, informative, and motivational. Appraisals serve an administrative role by facilitating an orderly means of determining salary increases and other rewards, and by delegating authority and responsibility to the most capable individuals. The informative function is fulfilled when the appraisal system supplies data to managers and appraisees about individual strengths and weaknesses. Finally, the motivational role entails creating a learning experience that motivates workers to improve their performance. When effectively used, performance appraisals help employees and managers establish goals for the period before the next appraisal.

Appraisees, appraisers (managers), and companies all reap benefits from effective performance appraisals. Appraisees benefit in a number of ways; for example, they discover what is expected of them and are able to set goals. They also gain a better understanding of their faults and strengths and can adjust behavior accordingly. In addition, appraisals create a constructive forum for providing feedback to workers about individual behavior, and for allowing workers to provide input to their managers. Finally, appraisees are (ideally) given assistance in creating plans to improve behavior, and are able to get a better grasp on the goals and priorities of the company.

Appraisers gain from evaluations as well. They are able to effectively identify and measure trends in the performance of their employees, and to more accurately compare subordinates. They also get a better understanding of their workers' needs and expectations. Managers are able to use the information to assist their subordinates in planning long-term and short-term goals and career objectives, and to tailor their job responsibilities to make fuller use of their skills. Importantly, the appraisal process helps managers to make informed decisions about promotions and assignments based on applicable facts.
Chief benefits that can accrue to the entire organization from the appraisal process include: improved communication, which results in more cooperation and better decision making; greater staff motivation; and a more informed and productive workforce, which leads to a greater organizational focus on comprehensive goals. Specifically, the performance appraisal process allows the organization to achieve a more productive division of labor, develop training and education programs, eliminate bias and irrelevant data from evaluations and decisions, and design effective compensation and reward systems.


PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEMS
Most effective systems of appraising performance are: (1) pragmatic, (2) relevant, and (3) uniform. Pragmatism is important because it helps to ensure that the system will be easily understood by employees and effectively put into action by managers. Appraisal structures that are complex or impractical tend to result in confusion, frustration, and nonuse. Likewise, systems that are not specifically relevant to the job may result in wasted time and resources. Indeed, most successful appraisal programs identify and evaluate only the critical behaviors that contribute to job success. Systems that miss those behaviors are often invalid, inaccurate, and result in discrimination based on nonrelated factors. Finally, uniformity of the appraisal structure is vital because it ensures that all employees will be evaluated on a standardized scale. Appraisals that are not uniform are less effective because the criteria for success or failure becomes arbitrary and meaningless. Furthermore, uniformity allows a company to systematically compare the appraisals of different employees with each other.
Keeping in mind the three key traits of effective performance appraisal programs, companies must address four decisions when structuring their appraisal systems: (1) What should be assessed?; (2) Who should make the appraisal?; (3) Which procedure(s) should be utilized?; and (4) How will the results be communicated? In determining what to evaluate, designers of an appraisal system usually consider not only results, but also the behaviors that lead to the results.
The actions and results that are measured will depend on a variety of factors specific to the company and industry. Most importantly, criteria should be selected that will encourage the achievement of comprehensive corporate objectives. This is accomplished by determining the exact role of each job in accomplishing company goals, and which behaviors and results are critical for success in each position. Furthermore, different criteria for success should be weighted to reflect their importance. Some performance appraisal analysts recommend concentrating assessment on productivity and quality, which can be objectively measured and compared. Focus on these two factors enable companies to determine if workers are performing their tasks at an acceptable pace and if they are performing their tasks at an acceptable level of quality. By assessing these factors, evaluators also can avoid biased appraisals.

In determining who should address performance, managers of the performance appraisal system usually select an employee's immediate supervisor to provide the assessment, which is then reviewed by a higher-level manager or the personnel department. In addition, other appraisers may be selected depending on: their knowledge of, and opportunity to observe, the appraisee's behavior, their ability to translate observations into useful ratings, and their motivation to provide constructive input about the employee's performance. Other evaluators may include coworkers, subordinates, customers, or even the employees themselves.

After selecting performance appraisal criteria and evaluators, the designers of the system must determine which assessment techniques to use. Numerous methods may be applied depending on the nature of the industry, company, or job. As noted earlier, many organizations utilize a combination of several techniques throughout the organization. In general, the most popular rating techniques fall into one of four categories: (1) rating, in which evaluators judge workers based on different characteristics; (2) ranking, whereby supervisors compare employees to one another; (3) critical incidents, in which evaluators create descriptions of good and bad behavior and then assign those descriptions to employees; and (4) techniques that use multiple or miscellaneous criteria, such as employee-directed standards.

In addition to selecting evaluation techniques, managers of appraisal systems must devise a means of effectively communicating the results of assessments to employees. Often, the communication process is built-in to the appraisal technique, but sometimes it isn't. Feedback about performance is important for improving worker behavior. For instance, a worker who receives a very positive appraisal will likely become motivated to perform. On the other hand, a poor appraisal could have the opposite effect. For that reason, assessors have a number of feedback techniques at their disposal to help ensure that the end result of any assessment is constructive. Examples of feedback methods are written follow-ups, goal setting to overcome deficiencies, and allowing workers to have input into their appraisal to explain reasons for success or failure. Importantly, most feedback techniques stress a relationship between employees and their negative behavior (i.e., employee still have value, despite their inadequate behavior).

Furthermore, to be productive, the performance appraisal process must contain general three steps: evaluation and job analysis, appraisal interview, and post-appraisal interview. During the first step, both the appraiser and the appraisee should prepare for the interview by considering job performance, job responsibilities, employee career goals, goals for improving performance, and problems and concerns about the job. Sometimes both the appraiser and the appraisee will fill out forms with questions addressing the previously mentioned topics.

Next, managers and employees meet to discuss what they have prepared and to establish goals for the period before the next performance appraisal. It is important that the appraisal interview be an exchange, not a speech. Both parties must be able to share their perceptions of the appraisee's performance. The third step, the post-appraisal interview, gives managers the opportunity to discuss salaries and promotions with employees. By not addressing this issue during the appraisal interview, both managers and employees can focus on performance and goal setting, instead of money. The post-appraisal meeting also can serve as a time for reiterating employee goals.

After appraising the performance of employees, an organization must evaluate the system itself to determine if it is helping to achieve designated organizational objectives (and conforming with legal guidelines, as discussed below). Managers of the appraisal system need to determine whether or not the system is being implemented properly:
• Are managers being rewarded for conducting appraisals?
• Are they being trained to perform the evaluations properly?
• Are evaluations based on specific job-related criteria?
Furthermore, they need to take action to determine whether or not the system is producing measurable results:
• Are the results of individual appraisals valid?
• Is the system producing consistent and reliable information for use in making decisions?
• Are employees developing and achieving goals as a result of appraisal and feedback?


BIAS AND ERRORS
Even when a performance evaluation program is structured appropriately, its effectiveness can be diluted by the improper use of subjective, as opposed to objective, measures. Objective measures are easily incorporated into an appraisal because they are quantifiable and verifiable. For example, fast-food workers may be rated on the number of cars they can serve at a drive-through window during an eight-hour period. Other objective measures commonly include error rates, number of complaints, frequency of failure, or other tangible gauges. In contrast, subjective measures are those that cannot be quantified and are largely dependent on the opinion of an observer. For example, an appraisal of fast-food workers' courteousness and attitude would be subjective.

Subjective measures have the potential to dilute the quality of worker evaluations because they may be influenced by bias, or distortion as a result of emotion. To overcome the effects of prejudice, many organizations train appraisers to avoid six common forms of bias: cross-cultural, error of central tendency, halo effect, leniency and strictness, personal prejudice, and recency effect. The recency effect is a corollary of the natural tendency for raters to judge an employee's performance based largely on his most recent actions rather than taking into account long-term patterns.

Cross-cultural bias is a consequence of an evaluator's expectations about human behavior. Those expectations often clash with the behavior of appraisees who have different beliefs or cultural values. For instance, an evaluator with an Asian heritage may be more likely to rate an older employee higher because he has been taught to revere older people. Likewise, personal prejudice results from a rater's dislike for a group or class of people. When that dislike carries over into the appraisal of an individual, an inaccurate review of performance is the outcome. For example, according to Kurt Kraiger and J. Kevin Ford writing in the Journal of Applied Psychology, studies have shown that black raters and white raters are much more likely to give high rankings to members of their own race.

Like cross-cultural and personal prejudice biases, the halo effect is caused by a rater's personal opinions about a specific employee that are not job-related. The term "halo" stems from the distortion that the appraisee, like an angel with a halo over its head, can do no wrong. This type of bias, however, also applies to foes of the rater. The effect is particularly pronounced when the appraisee is an enemy or very good friend of the evaluator.

Leniency and strictness bias results when the appraiser tends to view the performance of all of his employees as either good and favorable or bad and unfavorable. Although these distortions are often the result of vague performance standards, they may also be the consequence of the evaluator's attitudes. For example, some evaluators want their subordinates to like them (leniency bias) or want to feel like they are being a "tough judge" (strictness). Similarly, the error of central tendency occurs when appraisers are hesitant to grade employees as effective or ineffective. They pacify their indecisiveness by rating all workers near the center of the performance scale, thus avoiding extremes that could cause conflict or require an explanation.

In addition to bias, flaws in the execution of an appraisal program can be destructive. For instance, managers may be downgrading their employees because high performance reviews would outstrip the department's budget for bonuses. Or, some managers may be using performance appraisals to achieve personal or departmental political goals, thus distorting assessments. Problems are usually indicated, for example, by extremely high numbers of poor or positive appraisals, or by a general lack of individual improvement over the long term. In any case, appraisal managers must identify and overcome the causes of these flaws to ensure the usefulness of the system. This is typically accomplished through a formal process of evaluating the effectiveness of the appraisal program itself, as discussed above.


PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL TECHNIQUES
In addition to separating them into the four general categories discussed above, different performance appraisal techniques can be classified as either past-oriented or future-oriented. Past-oriented techniques assess behavior that has already occurred. They focus on providing feedback to employees about their actions, feedback that is used to achieve greater success in the future. In contrast, future-oriented appraisal techniques emphasize future performance by assessing employees' potential for achievement and by setting targets for both short- and long-term performance.

PAST-ORIENTED.
Some of the traditional forms of performance appraisals such as rating scales and checklists remain popular despite their inherent flaws. They entail an assessor providing a subjective assessment of an individual's performance based on a scale effectively ranging from good to bad or on a checklist of characteristics. Typically, basic criteria such as dependability, attitude, and attendance are listed. For the rating scale, the evaluator simply checks a box beside each factor to indicate, for example, excellent, good, fair, or poor. A value may be assigned to each level of success—a rating of fair, for instance, might be worth two points—and the appraisee's score totaled to determine his or her ranking.

For the checklist, the evaluator simply marks statements such as "works well with others" believed to describe the worker being appraised. The obvious advantage of these techniques is that they are inexpensive and easy to administer. Primary disadvantages include the fact that they are: highly susceptible to all forms of bias; often neglect key job-related information and include unnecessary data; provide limited opportunities for effective feedback; and fail to set standards for future success. Furthermore, subjective techniques such as rating scales are vulnerable to legal attack.

A fairer approach to performance appraisal is behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARSs), which are designed to identify job-related activities and responsibilities and to describe the more effective and less effective behaviors that lead to success in specific jobs. The rater observes a worker and then records his or her behavior on a BARS. The system is similar to checklist methods in that statements are essentially checked off as true or false. BARSs differ, however, in that they use combinations of job-related statements that allow the assessor to differentiate between behavior, performance, and results. Therefore, BARSs can be more effectively utilized in the goal-setting process. The advantage of BARSs is that they are extremely job specific, easy to administer, and eliminate most biases. Nevertheless, they can be difficult and expensive to develop and maintain.

Forced-choice appraisals consist of a list of paired (or larger groups of) statements. The statements in each pair may both be negative or positive, or one could be positive and the other negative. The evaluator is forced to choose one statement from each pair that most closely describes the individual. An example of a pair of statements might be "Always on Time" and "Never on Time." By incorporating several question groups that test different levels or degrees of the same behaviors, evaluators are able to generate an accurate representation of the individual's learning ability, interpersonal competence, drive, and other characteristics. Forced-choice appraisals are typically easy to understand and inexpensive to administer. But they lack job relatedness and provide little opportunity for constructive feedback.

Critical incident evaluation techniques require the assessor to record statements that describe good and bad job-related behavior (critical incidents) exhibited by the employee. The statements are grouped by categories such as cooperation, timeliness, and attitude. An advantage of this system is that it can be used very successfully to give feedback to employees. Furthermore, it is less susceptible to some forms of bias. On the other hand, critical incident assessments are difficult because they require ongoing, close observation and because they do not lend themselves to standardization and are time consuming.

Field review appraisal techniques entail the use of human resource professionals to assist managers in conducting appraisals. The specialist asks the manager and sometime coworkers questions about an employee's performance, records the answers, prepares an evaluation, and sends it to the manager to review and discuss with the employee. This type of system improves reliability and standardization because a personnel professional is doing the assessment. For the same reason, it is less susceptible to bias or to legal problems. But field reviews are generally expensive and impractical for most firms, and are typically utilized only in special instances—to counteract charges of bias, for example.


FUTURE-ORIENTED.
One of the most popular future-oriented performance appraisal techniques utilizes the management by objectives (MBO) approach. In MBO, managers and employees work together to set goals. In fact, MBO is usually goal oriented, with the intent of helping employees to achieve continuous improvement through an ongoing process of goal setting, feedback, and correction. As a result of their input, employees are much more likely to be motivated to accomplish the goals and to be responsive to criticism that arises from subsequent objective measurements of performance. To be successful, MBO depends on specific and measurable goals and a definite time frame. Although it achieved fad status in the late 1970s and into the 1980s, critics of MBO cite its propensity to focus on objectively measured behaviors, such as quantity of output, at the expense of subjective criteria, such as quality of output. The result can be employee frustration or lackluster performance.

Assessment center evaluation is a more complex assessment method that is usually applied to managerial or executive prospects. It is a system of determining future potential based on multiple evaluations and raters. Typically, a group meets at a training facility or evaluation site. They are evaluated individually through a battery of interviews, tests, and exercises. In addition, they are evaluated within a group setting during decision-making exercises, team projects, and group discussions. Psychologists and managers work together to evaluate the employees' future management potential and to identify strengths and weaknesses. Assessment centers are susceptible to bias, have been criticized as not being specifically job related, and are extremely costly. But they have also proven effective and have achieved broad appeal in the corporate world.

Psychological tests are a much less intricate method of determining future potential. They normally consist of interviews with the employee and his supervisors and coworkers, as well as different types of tests and evaluations of intellectual, emotional, and work-related characteristics. The psychologist puts his or her findings and conclusions in a report that may or may not be shared with the employee. Psychological testing is slow and costly, and must be administered extremely carefully because of the long-term implications of the evaluation on the employee's future. Success is largely dependent on the skill of the psychologist.

Another appraisal technique included in the future-oriented category is self-appraisal, which entails employees making evaluations of their own performance. Although self-assessment techniques may also be coordinated with past-oriented evaluations, they are particularly useful in helping employees to set personal goals and identify areas of behaviors that need improvement. The advantage of such appraisals, which may be relatively informal, is that they provide an excellent forum for input and feedback by superiors. In addition, they allow supervisors to find out what employees expect from themselves and from the organization or department. Furthermore, because the employee is much less defensive about the criticism, self-improvement is much more likely.
In addition, evaluators often combine various future- and past-oriented techniques, forming hybrid approaches to performance appraisal, according to Patricia King in Performance Planning and Appraisal. Using several different techniques enables managers to measure both behavior and results and to set goals for employees to improve their performance and to increase their motivation. For example, an evaluator might use both the BARSs and MBO techniques to reap the benefits of both and compensate for the drawbacks of each.


LEGAL INFLUENCES
Federal laws related to performance appraisals, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972, and a plethora of court decisions have turned the evaluation process into a legal mine field for many companies. Most of the federal laws are enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which was created by the Civil Rights Act.
In addition, surveys indicate that employees in the late 1980s had a greater awareness of their legal rights, since employees were three times as likely to sue employers during this period as they were in the early 1980s, according to the Rand Corporation.
Because appraisals are used to make promotions and demotions, give raises, establish salaries, and terminate and transfer workers, they must conform to strict EEOC Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures. Specifically, the law requires that performance appraisals: (1) are job related and utilize behavior-oriented, rather than trait-oriented, criteria; (2) use tests, measurements, scales, feedback, and other evaluation tools derived from an analysis of each individual job; (3) not reflect a bias based on race, color, sex, religion, age, or nationality; and (4) be conducted by persons that have distinct knowledge of the position.
In addition to explicit federal guidelines, court cases have also had an impact on appraisal processes. For example, court decisions have demonstrated that, even if it designs its appraisal system according to legal guidelines, a company may be at fault if the numeric results of its appraisal system reflect bias against a protected minority group. Suppose, for example, that statistics showed that a company's appraisal system resulted in a disproportionate number of employees of Mexican descent receiving promotions and raises, while a disproportionate number of African American workers did not receive the same rewards. Unless the organization could prove that its decisions were based only on specific job-related factors, its appraisal system could be judged as biased in the courts. Therefore, managers of appraisal systems must be careful to monitor results as well as structure.

In addition to legal ramifications related to bias, numerous other laws affect appraisal systems. Evaluations must conform to a battery of privacy laws, for example. Companies are not allowed to divulge personal information to outside sources, for instance, and are required to make most information gathered during the evaluation process available to employees at their request. Likewise, evaluators must be careful to steer clear of protected personal information that does not relate specifically to the ability of the worker to perform his or her job. Such questions include inquiries about pregnancy, age, sexual practices, family, and health. For instance, a company would be leaving itself open to legal attack if it asked an employee whether or not she planned to have children in the near future and then made a decision not to promote her based on that answer.

An organization could opt out of conducting any type of appraisal program as a way of avoiding litigation risks. But even that option becomes risky if the company's promotion/salary practices can be shown to be statistically discriminatory (because the company is left with no documentation to prove the legal validity of its decisions). A safer approach is to structure the performance appraisal system in accordance with EEOC guidelines, and to:
• Carefully record all decisions related to staffing, promotions, bonuses, and other actions impacted by appraisals.
• Create specific job requirements and evaluate objective criteria.
• Share appraisals only with staff members and people who have an interest in the assessment that is specifically related to the job.
• Document and follow procedures that eliminate bias and errors from the process.
• Conduct periodic evaluations of the program to ensure that the appraisal process is producing unbiased results.
• Have an attorney review appraisal policies and procedures.

Read more:
Performance Appraisal and Standards - benefits http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Per-Pro/Performance-Appraisal-and-Standards.html#ixzz0aMmdqfYb

Perekonomian Indonesia 8

Modernisasi Sektor Pertanian

Kondisi apakah yang sekarang sedang terjadi dalam pembangunan pertanian di Indonesia?

• Dalam perkembangannya dari waktu ke waktu, pembangunan pertanian di Indonesia , bahkan sejak pemerintahan Soekarno hingga, apalagi era Orde Baru, dan sekarang ini telah berorientasi ke arah modernisasi.
• Dari segala sesuatu yang dulunya bersifat tradisional sekarang telah berpaling menuju ke arah modern.
• Modernisasi pertanian di Indonesia ditandai dengan adanya revolusi hijau
• Revolusi hijau di Indonesia sudah dimulai sejak tahun 1960-an, dengan ciri teknologi kimiawi, bibit unggul, dan mesin baru.
• Tujuan utama revolusi hijau adalah peningkatan produksi pangan
• Peningkatan produksi telah dicapai dengan swasembada beras tahun 1984, dari sebagai negara pengimpor beras terbesar tahun 1970-an.
• Kondisi ekologi dalam rangka kelestarian lingkungan yang sustainable tidak terlalu diperhatikan sehingga tidak mengherankan bila muncul dampak sosial dan ekologisnya yang sangat merugikan, karena tidak terencanakan serta tidak terkontrol
• Pelaksanaan revolusi hijau dilakukan dengan cara apapun termasuk dengan paksaan agar para petani mau melakukannya. à masalah politis
• Model revolusi hijau jelas-jelas sudah gagal. Karena dampak yang ditimbulkan sangat merugikan masyarakat dengan mengubah pattern sistem sosialnya dan merusak keadaan lingkungan yang ada.
• Modernisasi pertanian di Indonesia pasca revolusi hijau masih berlanjut hingga sekarang, namun dengan content yang berbeda.
• Arah modernisasi sekarang berkiblat pada sistem agribisnis dan industrialisasi pertanian
• Penerapan konsep efisiensi, efektivitas, dan pandangan tentang
• komersialisasi produk
• Namun, terdapat beberapa fenomena yang ganjil dalam modernisasi pertanian di Indonesia sekarang.
• Di negara-negara yang sektor pertaniannya maju, lahan yang dibuka bagi petani semakin luas dengan jumlah petani yang semakin sedikit (dibantu dengan mesin dan alat pertanian yang canggih).
• Di Indonesia justru sebaliknya. Luas lahan yang diberikan kepada para petani semakin kecil dengan jumlah petani yang sangat banyak.
• Sistem tatanan sosial masyarakat terutama masyarakat pedesaan yang mayoritas penduduknya bekerja sebagai petani juga sudah berubah.
• Kebersamaan pudar, individualisme tumbuh, hilangnya kelembagaan egaliter (kesederajatan) masyarakat desa, hubungan “patron-klien” digantikan oleh perhitungan untung rugi.
• Ritual-ritual bercocok tanam yang ada di beberapa daerah di Indonesia juga sudah mulai hilang.


Alasan diinginkannya Modernisasi pertanian subsisten
• Sektor pertanian merupakan satu-satunya sektor ekonomi yang mampu menyediakan lapangan kerja terbesar di dunia.
• Semakin banyak orang tergantung pada pangan dan serat-seratan yang dihasilkan pertanian dibandingkan dengan industri lainnya.
• Dan unsur manusia terbesar dalam pertanian akan ditemukan dalam pertanian subsisten dan semi-subsisten.
• Pertumbuhan sektor pertanian adalah penting, dan menghubungkan rekanan-rekanan di dalam keseluruhan proses pertumbuhan ekonomi, dan tidak dapat diabaikan tanpa terjadi kerusakan serius.
• Pangan bagi para pekerja sektor industri dan serat-serat (sebagai bahan baku) bagi produk-produk industri datangnya dari sektor pertanian.
• Pasar potensial terbesar bagi produk-produk industri menyandarkan bahan bakunya pada hasil-hasil pertanian, sepanjang mayoritas orang-orang dalam tahapan pertama pembangunan merupakan orang-orang pertanian.
• Peralatan industri dibutuhkan untuk industrialisasi yang terpaksa harus diimpor, bisa dibiayai dengan menggunakan ekspor pertanian.
• Peranan potensial dari pertanian adalah pada proses akumulasi kapital untuk pertumbuhan.
• Meskipun negaranya relatif miskin dalam pertanian, banyak ahli percaya bahwa sektor pertanian telah menjadi sumber utama investasi kapital yang memberikan sumbangan bagi pertumbuhan ekonomi bangsa-bangsa yang sekarang telah maju.


Proses Modernisasi dan Pertumbuhan Ekonomi.
• Pembangunan pertanian subsisten adalah sinonim dengan modernisasi. Dan modernisasi tidak mungkin menghindari keterlibatan pengenalan faktor-faktor ekonomi yang semakin besar.
• Pertanian subsisten, di mana petani dan keluarganya bercocok tanam untuk bisa makan dan makan untuk bisa bertanam, melibatkan pilihan-pilihan ekonomis, bahkan meskipun tidak ada sedikitpun produk yang dijual dan tidak ada sedikitpun kebutuhan input dibeli.
• Para petani subsisten menghadapi sejumlah pilihan ekonomis tanpa adanya standar moneter umumnya, tetapi suatu harga implisit atau nilai atas beberapa jenis yang masih eksis yang memungkinkan mereka memilih di antara tanaman dan/atau campuran ternak, alokasi tenagakerja-waktu, dan penggunaan tenagakerja yang ditujukan untuk kombinasi-kombinasi perusahaan.
• Memasuki pasar juga berarti mengekspos petani individu kepada banyak impersonalitas, harsh (keras), subtil (licik) dan sewenang-wenang mempengaruhi kekuatan-kekuatan ekonomi yang mana seringkali di luar kendali petani individu.
• Semakin besar komersialisasi berarti suatu peningkatan kerapuhan terhadap kekuatan-kekuatan yang ada di luar kendali petani. Kekuatan-kekuatan ini bisa menguntungkan atau merugikan keberadaan petani.
• Harga atas apa yang diproduksinya bisa saja naik, dan begitu pula penghasilannya, dan hal tersebut bisa meningkatkan kemampuan membeli bahan-bahan kesehatan dan hidup yang lebih baik, dan meningkatkan standar hidupnya secara umum.
• Tetapi harga juga bisa jatuh sehingga meniadakan hal-hal bagus di atas.
• Petani subsisten murni masih dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor ekonomis. Sekali petani subsisten memasuki pasar, pengaruh-pengaruh ekonomis pada produksi, konsumsi, tabungan dsb. berakselerasi.
• Pemasaran beberapa produksi menciptakan tingkat ketergantungan semakin besar pada kekuatan-kekuatan dari luar dan suatu tekanan kesalingtergantungan antara bagian-bagian konsituen dari masyarakat.
Postmodernisasi sektor Pertanian
• Postmodernisasi adalah suatu jalan yang menentang seluruh kegiatan modernisasi yang melalui teknologi, industri, komunikasi, dan gaya hidup merusak keadaan alam dan merendahkan martabat manusia.
• Postmodernisasi semakin banyak menunjukkan kelemahan dari modernisasi.
• Postmodernisasi memberikan harapan untuk menghasilkan kreativitas, semangat intelektualisme, dan menghargai keberadaan dan martabat manusia.
• Postmodernisasi menggunakan bahasa, pendekatan, dan hubungan yang sangat intim (personal) dalam penyelesaian suatu masalah termasuk masalah pertanian.
• Postmodernisasi pertanian harus memperbaiki kesalahan-kesalahan yang ada pada era modernisasi pertanian termasuk revolusi hijau.
• Postmodernisasi cenderung anti pusat (lokalistik) dalam artian setiap permasalahan termasuk permasalahan pertanian dilakukan dengan cara yang berbeda-beda di masing-masing daerah, tidak seluruhnya di-homogen-kan seperti yang terdapat dalam program revolusi hijau sebelumnya.
• Postmodernisasi melakukan pendekatan relativistik dan pluralistik dengan sikap kerendahan hati untuk mendengarkan dan mengapresiasi suatu pendapat orang lain dan dalam kasus ini adalah pendapat para petani, tidak dalam program revolusi hijau yang juga menggunakan cara paksaan kepada para petani untuk melakukan program tersebut.
• Postmodernisasi mendorong peran kaum perempuan dalam kegiatan pertanian yang selama ini selalu berada di bewah bayang-bayang kaum pria.
• Postmodernisasi menghargai keberadaan bahasa, tradisi, dan budaya tradisional dan tidak memaksakan seluruh kepentingannya.
• Pembangunan pertanian di Indonesia seharusnya menggunakan konsep postmodernisasi daripada modernisasi.
• Postmodernisasi memang akan tampak seutuhnya setelah era modernisasi. Namun, jangan dilupakan bahwa postmodernisasi juga ikut tumbuh bersama dengan modernisasi. Dengan arti kata postmodernisasi suatu saat pasti akan muncul.

Pertanyaannya adalah kapan pastinya era ini muncul ?

Perekonomian Indonesia 6

Transformasi Sektor Industri

INDUSTRI MANUFAKTUR
• LEBIH MENCERMINKAN KEBIJAKAN EKONOMI INDONESIA PASCA PEMERINTAHAN SOEKARNO (YANG MENGALAMI MACET DI SEKTOR MANUFAKTUR)
• Masa Orde Lama, negara-negara penghasil industri manufaktur mengalami kekurangan bahan baku, karena pasokannya menyusut tajam, shg banyak perusahaan gulung tikar
• Ciri industri pada waktu itu (1960-an) :
• teknologi & mesin2 sangat usang, dari peninggalan th-1930-an
• Terlalu banyak peraturan pemerintah, khususnya yang mengakses ke valuta asing
• Infrastruktur yang tersedia tidak memadai atau bahkan dlm beberapa kasus malah tidak ada
• Ironisnya pemerintah tidak mampu memproteksi impor sehingga terjadi banyak penyelundupan komoditi.
• Sebagian besar industri kuat berada di tangan pemerintah sebagai hasil nasionalisasi th 1957-1964, maka tidak ada investasi swasta sama sekali
• Tidak ada modal ekuitas (surat berharga) asing
• Koneksi internasional utama adalah dengan blok Timur (Unisovyet & Eropa Timur), yang menyediakan teknologi, peralatan dan keuangan dalam bentuk usaha patungan dan kesepakatan “bagi-hasil”
• Hasil sensus 1963 menunjukkan :
• Sektor manufaktur hampir seluruhnya terdiri dari pengolahan bahan dasar secara sederhana dan barang kebutuhan pokok untuk pasar rumah tangga
• TERJADI PERDEBATAN FILOSOFIS BERKAITAN DENGAN STRATEGI PEMBANGUNAN EKONOMI DI MASA ORDE BARU.
• NAMUN ADA KESEPEKATAN SEMUA PIHAK BAHWA PENTING TERJADINYA PERTUMBUHAN INDUSTRI YANG PESAT


Pemulihan Industri Manufaktur
• TERJADI PERUBAHAN STRUKTURAL DAN TEKNOLOGI YANG SANGAT PESAT, PADA DEKADE “OIL BOOM” dekade 1970-an
• Akibatnya produksi naik rata-rata 12% per tahun (1966-1992)
• 1978 output non-minyak & gas dipublikasikan secara terpisah
• Sejak 1984, sektor non-migas memberikan dinamika nyata dalam pertumbuhan industri yang setiap tahun tumbuh rata-rata 10%
• DALAM ERA 1970-AN MUNCUL PERDEBATAN ANTARA PENDUKUNG INDUSTRI SUBSTITUSI IMPOR DAN PENDUKUNG INDUSTRI BERORIENTASI EKSPOR
• 1990-AN ALIRAN PENDUKUNG INDUSTRI OREINTASI EKSPOR NAIK DAUN à FOKUS DEBAT BERGESER PADA MASALAH CARA PENDEKATANNYA (KOREA ATAU JEPANG)


4 fase pertumbuhan dan transformasi yang pesat ini :
• Periode awal pertumbuhan yang pesat tahun 1967-1973 à didorong oleh liberalisasi dan pengembalian kepada kondisi ekonomi normal (stabil)
– inflasi turun tajam
– Saluran pasar internasional dibuka kembali
– Permintaan konsumen (berarti pula pengeluarannya), naik tajam dalam dorongan pertumbuhan ekonomi yang tinggi
– Biayanya : industri kecil, kerajinan rakyat yang pakai tenaga buruh terpuruk
– Tahap pertumbuhan ke dua, pada masa “Oil Boom” tahun 1970-an, tujuan kebijakan industri ditinjau kembali, karena masa ini terjadi inefisiensi pada industrialisasi yang diatur oleh negara meski petumbuhannya tinggi
– Pemerintah meninggalkan kebijakan perdagangan bebas
– Tarif-tarif diturunkan dan ada menurunan hambatan non-tarif.
– Pemerintah mulai menyalurkan kembali dari penghasilan minyak bumi kepada sektor usaha melik negara
– Turunnya tarif dan mengalirnya dana dari minyak à menaikkan pendapatan domestik à dipakai langsung untuk memenuhi permintaan barang industri manufaktur dalam negeri.
• Tahap pertumbuhan ke tiga. Dengan menurunnya harga minyak (1981), ada perubahan kebijakan ekonomi makro yang hati-hati
– Devaluasi rupiah 1983
– Repelita IV (1984) memberi kepercayaan pada industri berat yang dibiayai negara, melalui investasi ekuitas dan pinjaman bank negara
– Ekspor dan sektor swasta mulai dijadikan mesin utama pertumbuhan industri
– Ada beberapa paket deregulasi diterapkan untuk merangsang pertumbuhan ekonomi, seperti
– Namun kebijakan-kebijakan baru ini memunculkan “ekonomi biaya tinggi” : biaya proteksi, peraturan berbelit-belit, BUMN yang tidak efisien, pungutan liar, dsb.
• Masa pemerintahan presiden Habibi
– Di bawah payung BPIS (Badan Pengelola Industri Strategis), Habibi mengendalikan sejumlah perusahaan negara : industri pesawat terbang, industri baja, perkapalan, amunisi dan elektronik à tapi semuanya itu menunjukkan profitability yang rendah, tidak pernah menerbiatkan laporan keuangan lengkap, dan tidak di bawah pengawasan Dep-Keu.
– Perdebatan bergeser dari kisaran manfaat substitusi impor vs. industri ekspor ke isue strategi tentang lompatan teknologi yang didanai dan diatur oleh pemerintah
Ada dua teori utama dalam menganalisis struktur ekonomi
• Teori Arthur Lewis (teori migrasi) dan Hollins Chenery (teori transformasi struktural).
• Dalam teorinya, Lewis mengasumsikan bahwa perekonomian suatu negara pada dasarnya terbagi menjadi dua yaitu perekonomian tradisional di pedesaan yang didominasi sektor pertanian dan perekonomian modern di perkotaan dengan industri sebagai sektor utama.
• Di pedesaan, pertumnuhan pertumbuhan penduduknya tinggi sehingga terjadi kelebihan suplai tenaga kerja. à Akibat over supply tenaga kerja ini, tingkat upah menjadi sangat rendah. Sebaliknya, di perkotaan, sektor industri mengalami kekurangan tenaga kerja. Hal ini menarik banyak tenaga kerja pindah dari sektor pertama ke sektor kedua sehingga terjadi suatu proses migrasi dan urbanisasi.
• Selain itu tingkat pendapatan di negara bersangkutan meningkat sehingga masyarakat cenderung mengkonsumsi macam-macam produk industri dan jasa. Hal ini menjadi motor utama pertumbuhan output di sektor-sektor nonpertanian.


Teori Chenery
• memfokuskan pada perubahan struktur dalam tahapan proses perubahan ekonomi di suatu negara yang mengalami transformasi dari pertanian tradisional ke sektor industri sebagai mesin utama pertumbuhan ekonomi.


Faktor-faktor penyebab transisi ekonomi:
• Kondisi dan Struktur awal ekonomi dalam negeri
– Suatu negara yang pada awal pembangunan ekonomi sudah memiliki industri-industri dasar yang relatif kuat akan mengalami proses industrialisasi yang lebih pesat.
• Besarnya pasar dalam negeri
– Pasar dalam negeri yang besar merupakan salah satu faktor insentif bagi pertumbuhan kegiatan ekonomi, termasuk industri, karena menjamin adanya skala ekonomis dan efisiensi dalam proses produksi.
• Pola distribusi pendapatan
– Merupakan faktor pendukung dari faktor pasar. Tingkat pendapatan tidaklah berarti bagi pertumbuhan industri-industri bila distribusinya sangat pincang.
• Karakteristik Industrialisasi
– Mencakup cara pelaksanaan atau strategi pembangunan industri yang diterapkan, jenis industri yang diunggulkan, pola pembangunan industri, dan insentif yang diberikan.
• Keberadaan sumber daya alam
– Ada kecenderungan bahwa negara yang kaya SDA mengalami pertumbuhan ekonomi yang lebih rendah, terlambat melakukan industrialisasi, tidak berhasil melakukan diversifikasi ekonomi (perubahan struktur) daripada negara yang miskin
• Kebijakan perdagangan luar negeri
– Negara yang menerapkan kebijakan ekonomi tertutup (inward looking policy), pola hasil industrialisasinya akan berkembang tidak efisien dibandingkan negara-negara yang menerapkan outward looking policy.


Perubahan Struktural yang pesat
• Perubahan struktur ekonomi boleh dikatakan cukup pesat. Periode sejak tahun 1983 hingga krisis ekonomi peran sektor-sektor primer cenderung menurun sedangkan sektor sekunder (seperti industri manufaktur; listrik, gas, dan air; serta kontruksi) dan sektor tersier (perdagangan, hotel, dan restoran, transport & komunikasi, bank& keuangan, dan kegiatan-kegiatan ekonomi lainnya) terus meningkat.
• Pada sektor pertanian sendiri juga telah terjadi perubahan struktur ekonomi antar subsektor yang tidak seimbang dengan perubahan struktur pangsa penyerapan tenaga kerja.
• Beban penumpukan tenaga kerja yang terjadi saat ini pada sektor pertanian tidak terdistribusi dengan merata pada masing-masing subsektor, dimana hampir semuanya ditanggung subsektor tanaman pangan sehingga kondisi keluarga petani tanaman pangan semakin memprihatinkan.
• Secara umum telah terjadi perbaikan kualitas sumber daya manusia di Indonesia, terbukti komposisi penduduk dengan pendidikan setara pendidikan setara pendidikan menengah ke atas semakin besar, sebaliknya komposisi penduduk dengan tingkat pendidikan sekolah dasar ke bawah berkurang.
• Namun, perbaikan kualitas sumber daya manusia tersebut tidak diikuti oleh adanya kemampuan dari pemerintah untuk menciptakan kesempatan kerja sesuai dengan kualifikasi dari perbaikan kualitas sumberdaya manusia tersebut.
Solusi Masalah
• Untuk mengatasi terjadinya penumpukan tenaga kerja di sektor pertanian yang pada umumnya berada di daerah pedesaan dapat dilakukan melalui pengembangan industri berbasis pedesaan, dengan harapan di satu sisi mampu menyerap kelebihan tenaga kerja tersebut, dan di sisi lain mampu mendatangkan nilai tambah bagi produk pertanian. Sehingga pada akhirnya proses percepatan pemiskinan di sektor pertanian bisa diperlambat.
• Pengembangan teknologi pertanian terutama pada daerah-daerah yang kelebihan tenaga kerja sebaiknya diarahkan pada inovasi teknologl sarat tenaga kerja, sehingga masalah kelebihan tenaga kerja pada daerah tersebut dapat dikurangi.
• Perlu adanya restrukturisasi industri di Indonesia yang mengarah pada kesesuaian dengan kualitas dan kualifikasi tenaga kerja yang ada sekarang.
• à Sebaliknya, jenis pendidikan yang harus dikembangkan harus disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan pasar tenaga kerja, khususnya pasar tenaga kerja pada sektor industri.


Dua ciri utama Dimensi Spasial
• Pertama, Bagian Pulau Jawa dari output dan lapangan kerja sektor industri manufaktur (pabrik, yang non-migas) mengalami penurunan berlanjut sejak 1960-an
• Ke dua, pulau Jawa umumnya lebih terindustrialisasi ketimbang daerah luar pulau Jawa.

Perekonomian Indonesia 5

Social Business Entrepreneurship (SBE)

Mohammad Yunus ( 1974 )
Kebodohan,kemalasan,kemiskinan,kutukan dan ketidak mungkinan keluar dari “perangkap” keterbelakangan dan kemiskinan;yang membuat orang miskin tetap miskin dapat dipecahkan melalui langkah memberikan pada si MISKIN à KREDIT à bukan bantuan ,SANTUNAN à Sekali si Miskin dibantu, maka mereka tetap akan meminta bantuan ; karena bantuan dianggap sebagai HAK si MISKIN.
Berikan kepada si MISKIN à KREDIT MIKRO untuk Pemberdayaan Ekonomi, bebas dari KEMISKINAN

SBE vs CSR
1. SBE dipromosikan sebagai Sosial Business Entrepreneurship (social benefit ratio)
2. Prinsip SBE kesadaran sosial, bukan maksimalisasi Profit à CSR menghindari enclave à SBE terarah pada upaya meningkatkan kesetaraan dan keadilan sosial.
3. Grameen Bank berkembang secara bertahap,tidak memiliki CETAK BIRU
4. Bisnis bukan sekedar Mesin Pencetak Uang,tetapi harus pula berfungsi sebagai Mesin Pencetak Kesejahteraan Masyarakat, berdampak peningkatan kesejahteraan masyarakat ( Prinsip dasar SBE,M.Yunus )
6. SBE bukan sedekah tetapi BISNIS,setiap penyertaan Modal dapat diambil kembali oleh si Pemilik Modal.
7. CSR dipromosikan oleh Corporate pemburu laba ( cost
• benefit ratio ) ; SBE merupakan Social Responsibility


Prinsip Umum CSR
1. Setiap Perseroan sebagai subjek hukum memiliki tanggung jawab sosial dan lingkungan untuk beperan serta dalam pembangunan berkelanjutan guna meningkatkan kualitas pembangunan
2. Tanggung jawab sosial meliputi hal – hal yang berkaitan dengan hak asasi manusia,standar upah tenaga kerja, jaminan sosial, kesempatan untuk maju dalam PSDM à DIKLAT.
3. Setiap Perseroan disyaratkan lebih mengutamakan kesejahteraan Buruh/Pekerja daripada mengutamakan kepentingan Pemilik Usaha à Profit Oriented.


Menggugat Korporasi
1. Gejala Korporasi mulai menampak di akhir abad ke 19 dan meng – Global pada akhir abad ke 20
2. Korporasi bukan lagi Partnership / kongsi yang mengikat kelompok kecil orang, terikat bersama oleh kesetiaan pribadi dan kepercayaan satu sama lain, menyatukan sumber daya untuk menjalankan bisnis yang mereka miliki.
3. Korporasi : memisahkan kepemilikan dari manajemen dari sekelompok orang,yang menjalankan bisnis,sebagai CEO,Direktur atau Manager . Sedang kelompok pemilik merupakan pemegang Saham Korporasi.
4. Desain pemisahan antara Pemilik dan Manajemen banyak memicu korupsi dan skandal à moral hazard.
5. Korporasi berdampak kesenjangan yang makin melebar antara antara Korporasi dan Usaha Kecil à social gap
6. Global Warming yang makin merusak keseimbangan lingkungan,merupakan dampak nyata dari Korporasi Dunia ( Multi National Corporation )

Kredo CSR
1. Merupakan upaya MNC à Global Corporation untuk turut bertanggung jawab terhadap lingkungan sekitarnya
2. Korporasi diharapkan menjadi kekuatan utama yang dapat mengurangi kesenjangan sosial dan masalah sosial dilingkungannya.
3. Karena Korporasi didirikan untuk meraup keuntungan (Cost Benefit Ratio) maka sulit untuk merubah sebagai Kerja Sosial (Social Benefeciary)
4. Global Corporation diharapkan menjadi pelopor dalam CSR, seperti Mc Donald,Coca Cola dll MNC atau Usaha Patungan (MNC) dengan “ paket hemat “ à harga terjangkau kualitas produk dipertahankan.

H.R.Bowen, bapak CSR, 1953
1. Tanggung jawab pebisnis ( dunia usaha ) terhadap kepentingan sosial à dampak lingkungan sosial à jangan jadi enclave ditengah – tengah samudera kemiskinan
2. Pemangku Kepentingan yang sejalan dengan pendekatan sistem manajemen ( Freeman, 1984 )
Pemangku kepentingan (Steiner, 2004)
3. Pemangku Kepentingan ( Stake Holders ) :
1) Primer : pemegang saham,pelanggan,karyawan, komunitas, dan pemerintah
2) Sekunder : mass media,pesaing,pemasok, lembaga pendidikan,masyarakat duafa,asosiasi perdagangan, kelompok interes,kelompok peminjam dana (debitur) partai politik,LSM, organisasi masa,kaum agamais
3) Kunci : mereka yang memiliki potensi kerja sama dan potensi ancaman bagi organisasi dan bersifat konteks tual ( Fottler,1989 )
4. Perkembangan Corporate Social Responsibility :
1) Tahap awal : Mengedepankan kepetingan pemegang saham,agar efisien,tidak merugi à maksimilisasi laba usaha
2) Tahap kedua : Lebih fokus kepada kepenting- an karyawan,sebagai mitra usaha à hubungan tidak lagi Majikan – Buruh ( Karyawan )
3) Tahap ketiga : Dikembangkan pada dampaknya terhadap masyarakat luas yang terkena oleh kegiatan operasional usaha
4) Tahap keempat : Dikembangkannya kebajikan yang lebih luas untuk masyarakat luas
5. Dua mazhab CSR :
1) Mazhab Ekologi ; discretionary responsibilities melalui aktivitas:charity,philantrophy,corporate citizenship,community development
2) Mazhab positioning,meliputi ethical responsi- bilities,legal responsibilities,economic respon- sibilities dan good corporate governance
6. Dampak isu CSR pada aspek Ekonomi, adalah : economic growth,social welfare dan environmental protection;
7. Isu CSR tidak hanya atau semata – mata demi Laba Usaha Maksimal Perusahaan tetapi juga keuntungan ( benefit ) bagi masyarakat dan lingkungan yang akan menjamin arah pembangunan berkelan – jutan ( sustainable development )
8. Pembangunan berkelanjutan dapat dilihat dari proses à economic growth, social welfare dan environmental protection
9. Terjadi proses : Corporate Social Responsiveness,Corporate Governance dan Corporate Citizenship
10. Lingkaran besar bagian atas,kondisi sebelum terjalin kemitraan usaha
11. Lingkaran besar bagian bawah,menunjuk kan kondisi setelah dialkukan kemitraan ; antara Perusahaan,Pemerintah dan Lembaga Pendidikan
12. Badan Perencana,Badan Pelaksana dan Pengendali CSR melakukan manajemen kemitraan CSR ; bersifat task force à overlap dan menunjukkan sinergitas kemitraan

Perekonomian Indonesia 7

MEMBANGUN SISTEM EKONOMI NASIONAL KERAKYATAN


Sistem Ekonomi Nasional = Sistem Ekonomi Kerakyatan
(Rakyat Berdaulat , Wantannas ,2002)

a. Sistem Ekonomi yang diamanatkan oleh Amanat Penderitaan Rakyat ( AMPERA )
b. Sasaran Nasional,yang diamanatkan dalam Pembukaan UUD RI 1945.
c. Sistem Ekonomi yang Membebaskan Rakyat dari : Kemiskinan,Kebodohan,Ketergantungan, Rasa was – was menghadapi masa depan, Rasa diperlakukan tidak adil dan Bebas dari kerusakan lingkungan hidup.

1.Bebas dari Kemiskinan
Sistem Ekonomi yang bersasaran membebaskan Rakyat dari Kemiskinan
Musuh terbesar umat manusia,adalah kemiskinan dan kebodohan ; Miskin karena bodoh atau sebaliknya Bodoh karena Miskin.
Pembukaan UUD 1945 ;upaya meningkatkan kesejahteraan umum (social welfare)
Meningkatkan kesejahteraan umum,tidak akan tercapai tanpa “ mencerdaskan kehidup an bangsa terlebih dulu “

2.Bebas dari Keterbelakangan / Kebodohan
Sistem ekonomi yang mengarah pada mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa (Pembukaan UUD 1945)
Melalui perbaikan Gizi,DIKLAT / PSDM Rakyat akan bebas dari Keterbelakangan.

3.Bebas dari Penjajahan ( ekonomi )
Ketergantungan pada Bangsa, Negara lain ,Lembaga Keuangan Internasional (CGI IBRD, IMF ) karena UTANG LN yang berkepanjangan ; sejak 1967 – 2007 ( empat dasawarsa );karena sebagai negara miskin,UTANG dianggap sebagai HAK, tanpa memperhatikan WAJIB bayar lunas dikemudian hari.

4.Bebas dari rasa khawatir menghadapi masa depan
Rasa was – was / khawatir menghada -pi masa depan;karena belum adanyajaminan bagi Rakyat memperoleh haknya dalam peluang Kesempatan Kerja (UUD 1945:Setiap warga negara berhak atas pekerjaan dan kehidupan yang layak,ps 27 / 2 )

5.Bebas dari rasa diperlakukan tidak adil
Dalam memikul beban dan menikmati hasil pembangunan , karena unsur KKN , Diskriminasi dan Moral Hazard.

6.Bebas dari Kerusakan Lingkungan
a. Kerusakan lingkungan : pencemaran air, polusi udara,kerusakan hutan,akan ber dampak negatif terhadap kelangsungan pembangunan(sustainable development
b. Ramah lingkungan,berarti pengendalian keseimbangan ekologi.

Maka,
Sasaran Sistem Ekonomi Kerakyatan , adalah :
ADIL DAN MAKMUR= MAKMUR yang BERKEADILAN
Rakyat Cerdas,Sejahtera , SEHAT, Bekerja/ tidak menganggur, diperlakukan dengan ADIL dan Berkelanjutan


Mengapa Enam Sasaran Ekonomi Kerakyatan tidak tercapai??
Karena :
a. Enam sasaran Ekonomi Kerakyatan tersebut diatas,selama tiga dasawarsa pembangunan (1969 – 1998 ),sampai lengsernya Orde Baru /Resim Suharto,tidak tercapai ; Rakyat belum bebas dari kemiskinan,kebodohan,ketergantungan pada UTANG LUAR NEGERI,
b.Rakyat, was – was menghadapi masa depan (menganggur dan terkena PHK ),dari diskriminasi ekonomi dan moral hazard ( corrupt, collusion, conspiration, connection, crony plus nepotism ), clean government atau good governance belum tercapai.
c. Terjadi kerusakan lingkungan yang berlanjut,air,udara dan lahan yang kering kerontang / puso.

Kebijaksanaan Strategis
Untuk dapat mencapai Sistem Ekonomi Kerakyatan, perlu dilakukan Kebijaksanaan Strategis sebagai berikut :

1) Meningkatkan Produksi Nasional,melalui investasi yang menjamin adanya peningkatan produksi nasional – sektor Riil ( GNP / GDP ) à ∆ LPE
2) Memperluas Kesempatan Kerja ; Investasi terarah untuk perluasan Kesempatan Kerja ( employment creation )à ∆ N
3) Menjaga perkembangan harga barang dan jasa dan nilai tukar yang stabil dan terkendali ( uu no. 23/1999) Inflasi dan depresiasi Rupiah terkendali / stabil.
4) Menggalakkan Ekspor agar lebih besar dari Impor ( X > M ) diperoleh surplus, cadangan devisa bertambah dan peluang kesempatan kerja diperluas ( komoditi ekspor ) à Peluang ekspor barang besar = Peluang kesempatan kerja besar.
5) Menekan dan mengendalikan utang luar negeri,dengan lebih menggalakkan tabungan dalam negeri sebagai sumber investasi pembangunan ; hingga tidak terjadi defisit APBN yang kronis dan berlanjut.
6) Menekan defisit APBN selama ini ditanggulangi dengan utang luar negeri yang makin meningkat,tidak berlanjut
7) Mengurangi kesulitan membayar ULN jatuh tempo, agar jangan sampai terpaksa menjual aset nasional ( BUMN, privatisasi ,Go Public à PMA )
8) Menjadikan sektor Moneter – Perbankan yang sehat dan Prudent, Bank sebagai lembaga intermediasi mampu turut serta dalam upaya meningkatkan taraf hidup rakyat banyak ( uu no 10 / 1998 ) à Perluasan kesempatan kerja
9) Fungsi Bank : Menghimpun dana masyarakat (giro, tabungan,deposito ) untuk kemudian disalurkan dalam bentuk kredit pada dunia usaha dalam rangka meningkatkan taraf hidup rakyat ( uu no 10 / 1998 )
10) Menjaga tidak terjadi kerusakan lingkungan agar dapat dicapai pembangunan yang berkelanjutan ( sustainable development ) karena didukung oleh kebijakan ramah lingkungan.
11) Ramah lingkungan = terjadi keseimbangan ekologi ; tidak terjadi pencemaran air,udara mau pun kerusakan hutan, lahan serapan air.


Sasaran Strategis Pembangunan Indikator Pembangunan Berhasil
1. Rakyat bebas dari kemiskinan
2. Rakyat bebas dari kebodohan à menjadi manusia modal à Produktif àPendapatan meningkat
3. Rakyat bebas dari pengangguran à
4. Negara bebas dari ketergantungan pada ULN
5. Negara bebas dari kekurangan devisa à karena ekspor > impor
6. Negara bebas dari kerusakan lingkungan à sustainable development dicapai.

Era Globalisasi – Perdagangan Bebas
Persyaratan yang harus terpenuhi diantaranya yang terpenting dan strategik adalah
Menjadikan SDM menjadi MANUSIA MODAL
Theodore Schultz ( Pelopor Ekonomi Sumber Daya Manusia )
Untuk memperbaiki tingkat kemakmuran negara berkembang,tidak tergangung pada tanah dengan sumber daya alamnya peralatan / modal dengan sumber daya enerji nya,akan tetapi tergantung pada penguasaan IPTEK yang dimiliki Rakyat atau apa yang disebut Manusia Modal

Dalam era globalisasi,maka sumber daya ekonomi strategis telah bergeser dari modal uang ke MODAL MANUSIA ( Human Capital )

ERA GLOBALISASI
Perdagangan Bebas
Untuk dapat memasuki era globalisasi perdagangan bebas AFTA 2003 dan APEC 2020,maka Sistem Ekonomi Indonesia , harus mampu memenuhi Delapan Prasyarat unggulan daya saing (competitive advantage memenuhi delapan prasyarat = KOMPETEN dalam :
1. Ekonomi Domestik,ekonomi domestik sehat ( fundamental ekonomi kuat )
2. Management Sektor Bisnis prima,unggul,
3. Penguasaan IPTEK, kualitas SDM : Manusia Modal,
4. Rakyat berkualitas, tidak menjadi beban tetapi Pelaku aktif dalam Pembangunan, Ekonomi,
5. Prasarana Prima, jaringan jalan,pelabuhan darat,laut,udara,telekomunikasi,energi - listrik tersedia sebagai public utilities.
6. Good governance, bebas dari moral hazard, KKN dan high cost economy ( ekonomi biaya tinggi ),
7. Strong Finance,APBN tidak defisit berkepanjangan ; utang LN
8. Internationalization, produk mampu memasuki pasar Global;standar WTO /ISO

Type Of Crime 1

TYPES OF WHITE COLLAR CRIME


1. Bank Fraud:
To engage in an act or pattern of activity where the purpose is to defraud a bank of funds.

2. Blackmail:
A demand for money or other consideration under threat to do bodily harm, to injure property, to accuse of a crime, or to expose secrets.

3. Bribery:
When money, goods, services, information or anything else of value is offered with intent to influence the actions, opinions, or decisions of the taker. You may be charged with bribery whether you offer the bribe or accept it.

4. Cellular Phone Fraud:
The unauthorized use, tampering, or manipulation of a cellular phone or service. This can be accomplished by either use of a stolen phone,or where an actor signs up for service under false identification or where the actor clones a valid electronic serial number (ESN) by using an ESN reader and reprograms another cellular phone with a valid ESN number.

5. Computer fraud:
Where computer hackers steal information sources contained on computers such as: bank information, credit cards, and proprietary information.

6. Counterfeiting:
Occurs when someone copies or imitates an item without having been authorized to do so and passes the copy off for the genuine or original item. Counterfeiting is most often associated with money however can also be associated with designer clothing, handbags and watches.

7. Credit Card Fraud:
The unauthorized use of a credit card to obtain goods of value.

8. Currency Schemes:
The practice of speculating on the future value of currencies.

9. Embezz1ement:
When a person who has been entrusted with money or property appropriates it for his or her own use and benefit.

10. Environmental Schemes:
The overbilling and fraudulent practices exercised by corporations which purport to clean up the environment.

11. Extortion:
Occurs when one person illegally obtains property from another by actual or threatened force, fear, or violence, or under cover of official right.

12. Forgery:
When a person passes a false or worthless instrument such as a check or counterfeit security with the intent to defraud or injure the recipient.

13. Health Care Fraud:
Where an unlicensed health care provider provides services under the guise of being licensed and obtains monetary benefit for the service.

14. Insider Trading:
When a person uses inside, confidential, or advance information to trade in shares of publicly held corporations.

15. Insurance Fraud:
To engage in an act or pattern of activity wherein one obtains proceeds from an insurance company through deception.

16. Investment Schemes:
Where an unsuspecting victim is contacted by the actor who promises to provide a large return on a small investment.

17. Kickback:
Occurs when a person who sells an item pays back a portion of the purchase price to the buyer.

18. Larceny/Theft:
When a person wrongfully takes another person's money or property with the intent to appropriate, convert or steal it.

19. Money Laundering:
The investment or transfer of money from racketeering, drug transactions or other embezzlement schemes so that it appears that its original source either cannot be traced or is legitimate.

20. Racketeering:
The operation of an illegal business for personal profit.


21. Securities Fraud:
The act of artificially inflating the price of stocks by brokers so that buyers can purchase a stock on the rise.

22. Tax Evasion:
When a person commits fraud in filing or paying taxes.


23. Telemarketing Fraud:
Actors operate out of boiler rooms and place telephone calls to residences and corporations where the actor requests a donation to an alleged charitable organization or where the actor requests money up front or a credit card number up front, and does not use the donation for the stated purpose.

24. Welfare Fraud:
To engage in an act or acts where the purpose is to obtain benefits (i.e. Public Assistance, Food Stamps, or Medicaid) from the State or Federal Government.


25. Weights and Measures:
The act of placing an item for sale at one price yet charging a higher price at the time of sale or short weighing an item when the label reflects a higher weight.